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<h2>Silver</h2> | <h2>Silver</h2> | ||
<article> | <article> | ||
− | Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are known to possess toxic properties. The toxicity of AgNPs varies in response to the shape and size of the AgNPs. The toxicity increases significantly when the AgNPs are smaller than 10 nm (Ivask <i>et al.</i>, 2014). It has been demonstrated that AgNPs exhibit toxic effects in bacteria at environmentally relevant concentrations (Colman <i>et al.</i>, 2013). The growth inhibition is dependent on the concentration of the AgNPs. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for AgNPs in <i>E. coli</i> is considered to be between 3.3 and 6.6 nM (Kim <i>et al.</i>, 2007). The exposure to AgNPs results in an apoptosis-like response of the cell. To begin with, the membrane is depolarized by AgNPs, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions.These ROS cause oxidative stress and lead to the fragmentation of DNA. Simultaneously calcium accumulates in the cytoplasm of the cell. An increased concentration of calcium results in the inversion of phosphatidylserine in the membrane. All of these processes ultimately lead to the activation of bacterial caspase-like proteins and RecA (Bortner & Cidlowski, 2007; Yun & Lee, 2017). | + | Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are known to possess toxic properties. The toxicity of AgNPs varies in response to the shape and size of the AgNPs. The toxicity increases significantly when the AgNPs are smaller than 10 nm (Ivask <i>et al.</i>, 2014). It has been demonstrated that AgNPs exhibit toxic effects in bacteria at environmentally relevant concentrations (Colman <i>et al.</i>, 2013). The growth inhibition is dependent on the concentration of the AgNPs. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for AgNPs in <i>E. coli</i> is considered to be between 3.3 and 6.6 nM (Kim <i>et al.</i>, 2007). The exposure to AgNPs results in an apoptosis-like response of the cell. To begin with, the membrane is depolarized by AgNPs, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions.These ROS cause oxidative stress and lead to the fragmentation of DNA. Simultaneously calcium accumulates in the cytoplasm of the cell. An increased concentration of calcium results in the inversion of phosphatidylserine in the membrane. All of these processes ultimately lead to the activation of bacterial caspase-like proteins and RecA (Bortner & Cidlowski, 2007; Yun & Lee, 2017). However there are considerations whether the AgNPs are toxic or whether the toxic effect is due to ions dissolving from the nanoparticles (Hwang <i>et al.</i>, 2008).</br> |
The toxic effects of silver salts have been known since antiquity. Even Hippocrates recognized its antimicrobial properties in water (Magner, 1992). The toxic effect of silver ions relies on the same chemical features as those of the AgNPs. When being exposed to silver ions, the bacterium experiences several forms of oxidative stress, mainly ROS which arise from Fenton chemistry. Ag(I) disrupts metabolic pathways that drive Fenton chemistry and lead to the overproduction of hydroxyl radicals and cell death (Morones-Ramirez <i>et al.</i>, 2013). At a concentration of 18.9 µM, all bacterial growth comes to an end (Zhao & Stevens, 1998).</br> | The toxic effects of silver salts have been known since antiquity. Even Hippocrates recognized its antimicrobial properties in water (Magner, 1992). The toxic effect of silver ions relies on the same chemical features as those of the AgNPs. When being exposed to silver ions, the bacterium experiences several forms of oxidative stress, mainly ROS which arise from Fenton chemistry. Ag(I) disrupts metabolic pathways that drive Fenton chemistry and lead to the overproduction of hydroxyl radicals and cell death (Morones-Ramirez <i>et al.</i>, 2013). At a concentration of 18.9 µM, all bacterial growth comes to an end (Zhao & Stevens, 1998).</br> | ||
Silver is toxic in both of its forms: as a nanoparticle and as dissolved ions. Therefore an approach to decrease the toxic effect on the cell is needed. | Silver is toxic in both of its forms: as a nanoparticle and as dissolved ions. Therefore an approach to decrease the toxic effect on the cell is needed. | ||
</article> | </article> | ||
+ | <figure role="group"> | ||
+ | <img class="figure eighty" src="https://static.igem.org/mediawiki/2018/2/29/T--Bielefeld-CeBiTec--JR-SilverrToxicity.jpeg"> | ||
+ | <figcaption> | ||
+ | <b>Figure 2:</b> Toxic effects of silver nanoparticles and silver ions on the cell. Silver nanoparticles and silverer ions lead to a rising level of ROS which causes oxidative stress and damage to the DNA, proteins and the membrane. | ||
+ | </figcaption> | ||
+ | </figure> | ||
+ | |||
<!-- <span id="copper"></span> --> | <!-- <span id="copper"></span> --> |
Revision as of 07:32, 2 October 2018
Toxicity
Gold
Silver
Copper
Iron
Reactive oxygen species
Alkilany, A. M., Nagaria, P. K., Hexel, C. R., Shaw, T. J., Murphy, C. J., & Wyatt, M. D. (2009). Cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of gold nanorods: molecular origin of cytotoxicity and surface effects. Small, 5(6), 701-708.
Alum, A., Alboloushi, A., & Abbaszadegan, M. (2018). Copper nanoparticles toxicity: Laboratory strains verses environmental bacterial isolates. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 1-8.
Bi, D.Q., Xu, Y.M. (2012). Influence of iron oxide doping on the photocatalytic degradation of organic dye X3B over tungsten oxide. Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica, 28, 1777-1782.
Bortner, C. D., Cidlowski, J. A. (2007). Cell shrinkage and monovalent cation fluxes: role in apoptosis. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 462(2), 176-188.
Broxton, C. N., & Culotta, V. C. (2016). SOD enzymes and microbial pathogens: surviving the oxidative storm of infection. PLoS pathogens, 12(1), e1005295.
Brust, M., Fink, J., Bethell, D., Schiffrin, D. J., & Kiely, C. (1995). Synthesis and reactions of functionalised gold nanoparticles. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, (16), 1655-1656.
Burgess, J. E., Quarmby, J., & Stephenson, T. (1999). Role of micronutrients in activated sludge-based biotreatment of industrial effluents. Biotechnology advances, 17(1), 49-70.
Caruntu D, Remond Y, Chou NH, Jun M-J, Caruntu G, He J, Goloverda G, O'Connor C, Kolesnichenko V (2002). Reactivity of 3d transition metal cations in diethylene glycol solutions. Synthesis of transition metal ferrites with the structure of discrete nanoparticles complexed with long-chain carboxylate anions. Inorganic chemistry, 41(23), 6137-6146.
Chaithawiwat, K., Vangnai, A., McEvoy, J. M., Pruess, B., Krajangpan, S., & Khan, E. (2016). Role of oxidative stress in inactivation of Escherichia coli BW25113 by nanoscale zero-valent iron. Science of the Total Environment, 565, 857-862.
Cioffi, N., Torsi, L., Ditaranto, N., Tantillo, G., Ghibelli, L., Sabbatini, L., Bleve-Zacheo, T., D’Alessio, M., Zambonin, P.G., Traversa, E. (2005). Copper nanoparticle/polymer composites with antifungal and bacteriostatic properties. Chemistry of Materials, 17(21), 5255-5262.
Chang, M. L., Chen, J. C., Yeh, C. T., Chang, M. Y., Liang, C. K., Chiu, C. T., Lin D.Y., Liaw, Y. F. (2008). Gene gun bombardment with DNA-coated gold particles is a potential alternative to hydrodynamics-based transfection for delivering genes into superficial hepatocytes. Human gene therapy, 19(4), 391-395.
Colman, B. P., Arnaout, C. L., Anciaux, S., Gunsch, C. K., Hochella Jr, M. F., Kim, B., Lowry, G.V., McGill, B.M., Reinsch, B.C., Richardson, C.J., Unrine, J. M., Wright, J.P., Yin, L., Bernhardt, E.S. (2013). Low concentrations of silver nanoparticles in biosolids cause adverse ecosystem responses under realistic field scenario. PLoS One, 8(2), e57189.
Dubbs, J. M., & Mongkolsuk, S. (2016). Peroxide‐Sensing Transcriptional Regulators in Bacteria. Stress and Environmental Regulation of Gene Expression and Adaptation in Bacteria, 587-602.
Eid, R., Arab, N.T.T., Greenwood, M.T. (2017). Iron mediated toxicity and programmed cell death: A review and a re-examination of existing paradigms. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research, 1864(2), 399-430.
Fagali, N. S., Grillo, C. A., Puntarulo, S., & Lorenzo, M. A. F. (2015). Biodegradation of metallic biomaterials: its relation with the generation of reactive oxygen species. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES, LIPID PEROXIDATION AND PROTEIN OXIDATION, 127.
Farr, S. B., Kogoma, T. (1991). Oxidative Stress Responses in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Microbiological Reviews, 55(4), 561-585.
Halliwell, B. (1991). Reactive oxygen species in living systems: Source, biochemistry, and role in human disease. The American Journal of Medicine, 91(3), S14-S22.
Halliwell, B. (2007). Biochemistry of oxidative stress. Biochem Soc Trans, 35(5), 1147-1150.
Halliwell, B., & Gutteridge, J. M. (2015). Free radicals in biology and medicine. Oxford University Press, USA.
Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, N. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press.
Huang, Q., Cao, M.H., Ai, Z.H., Zhang, L.Z. (2015). Reactive oxygen species dependent degradation pathway of 4-chlorophenol with Fe@Fe2O3 core-shell nanowires. Appl Catal B-Environ, 162, 319-326.
Hwang, E. T., Lee, J. H., Chae, Y. J., Kim, Y. S., Kim, B. C., Sang, B. I., & Gu, M. B. (2008). Analysis of the toxic mode of action of silver nanoparticles using stress‐specific bioluminescent bacteria. Small, 4(6), 746-750.
Ivask, A., ElBadawy, A., Kaweeteerawat, C., Boren, D., Fischer, H., Ji, Z., Chang, C.H., Liu, R., Tolaymat, T., Telesca, D., Zink, J. I., Cohen, Y., Holden, P.A., Godwin, H.A., (2013). Toxicity mechanisms in Escherichia coli vary for silver nanoparticles and differ from ionic silver. Acs Nano, 8(1), 374-386.
Kamariah, N., Nartey, W., Eisenhaber, B., Eisenhaber, F., & Grüber, G. (2016). Low resolution solution structure of an enzymatic active AhpC10: AhpF2 ensemble of the Escherichia coli Alkyl hydroperoxide Reductase. Journal of structural biology, 193(1), 13-22.
Kaplan, J. H., & Lutsenko, S. (2009). Copper transport in mammalian cells: special care for a metal with special needs. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 284(38), 25461-25465.
Kehrer, J.P. (2000). The Haber-Weiss reaction and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicology, 149, 43-50.
Kim, J.S., Kuk, E., Yu, K.N., Kim, J.H., Park, S.J., Lee, H.J., Kim, S.H., Park, Y.K., Park, Y.H., Hwang, C.Y., Kim, Y.K., Lee, Y.S., Jeong, D.H., Cho, M.H., (2007). Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, 3, 95-101.
Letelier, M. E., Sánchez-Jofré, S., Peredo-Silva, L., Cortés-Troncoso, J., & Aracena-Parks, P. (2010). Mechanisms underlying iron and copper ions toxicity in biological systems: Pro-oxidant activity and protein-binding effects. Chemico-biological interactions, 188(1), 220-227.
Li, F., Lei, C., Shen, Q., Li, L., Wang, M., Guo, M., Huang, Y., Nie, Z., Yao, S. (2013). Analysis of copper nanoparticles toxicity based on a stress-responsive bacterial biosensor array. Nanoscale, 5(2), 653-662.
Liu, L., Wu, D., Zhao, B., Han, X., Wu, J., Hou, H., & Fan, Y. (2015). Copper (II) coordination polymers: tunable structures and a different activation effect of hydrogen peroxide for the degradation of methyl orange under visible light irradiation. Dalton Transactions, 44(3), 1406-1411.
Magner, L.N. (1992). In: Hippocrates and the Hippocratic Tradition. A History of Medicine. Duffy J, editor. Marcel Dekker, Inc; NYC: 1992. p. 393.
Masoud, R., Bizouarn, T., Trepout, S., Wien, F., Baciou, L., Marco, S., & Levin, C. H. (2015). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles increase superoxide anion production by acting on NADPH oxidase. PloS one, 10(12), e0144829.
Mignolet-Spruyt, L., Xu, E., Idänheimo, N., Hoeberichts, F. A., Mühlenbock, P., Brosché, M. & Kangasjärvi, J. (2016). Spreading the news: subcellular and organellar reactive oxygen species production and signalling. Journal of Experimental Botany, 67(13), 3831-3844.
Morones-Ramirez, J. R., Winkler, J. A., Spina, C. S., & Collins, J. J. (2013). Silver enhances antibiotic activity against gram-negative bacteria. Science translational medicine, 5(190), 190ra81-190ra81.
Ochoa-Herrera, V., León, G., Banihani, Q., Field, J. A., Sierra-Alvarez, R. (2011). Toxicity of copper (II) ions to microorganisms in biological wastewater treatment systems. Science of the total environment, 412, 380-385.
Seo, S. W., Kim, D., Szubin, R., & Palsson, B. O. (2015). Genome-wide reconstruction of OxyR and SoxRS transcriptional regulatory networks under oxidative stress in Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655. Cell Reports, 12(8), 1289-1299.
Shareena Dasari, TP, Zhang, Y, Yu, H (2015). Antibacterial Activity and Cytotoxicity of Gold (I) and (III) Ions and Gold Nanoparticles. Biochem Pharmacol (Los Angel) 4(6), 199.
Wang, X., Gu, Y., Johnson, D., Chen, C., Huang, Y. (2017). The toxicity and DNA-damage mechanism of α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles. Medicinal chemistry Research, 26(2), 384-389.
Winterbourn, C.C. (1995). Toxicity of iron and hydrogen peroxide: the Fenton reaction. Toxicol. Lett., 82-83, 969-974.
Witkiewicz, P. L., & Shaw, C. F. (1981). Oxidative cleavage of peptide and protein disulphide bonds by gold (III): a mechanism for gold toxicity. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, (21), 1111-1114.
Yaeger C.C. (1991). Copper and zinc preservatives. In S.S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. 4th edn, Lea & Fiebiger Press, Philadelphia, USA, 358-361.
Yun, J., Lee, D.G. (2017). Silver Nanoparticles: A Novel Antimicrobial Agent. Antimicrobial Nanoarchitectonics, 139-166.
Zhang, C. (2014). Essential functions of iron-requiring proteins in DNA replication, repair and cell cycle control. Protein Cell, 5, 750-760.
Zhang, Y., Newton, B., Lewis, E., Fu, P. P., Kafoury, R., Ray, P. C., & Yu, H. (2015). Cytotoxicity of organic surface coating agents used for nanoparticles synthesis and stability. Toxicology in Vitro, 29(4), 762-768.
Zhang, H., Jiang, X., Cao, G., Zhang, X., Croley, T. R., Wu, X., & Yin, J. J. (2018). Effects of noble metal nanoparticles on the hydroxyl radical scavenging ability of dietary antioxidants. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 36(2), 84-97.
Zhao, G, Stevens, SE Jr. (1998). Multiple parameters for the comprehensive evaluation of the susceptibility of Escherichia coli to the silver ion. BioMetals 11(1), 27-32.
Alum, A., Alboloushi, A., & Abbaszadegan, M. (2018). Copper nanoparticles toxicity: Laboratory strains verses environmental bacterial isolates. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 1-8.
Bi, D.Q., Xu, Y.M. (2012). Influence of iron oxide doping on the photocatalytic degradation of organic dye X3B over tungsten oxide. Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica, 28, 1777-1782.
Bortner, C. D., Cidlowski, J. A. (2007). Cell shrinkage and monovalent cation fluxes: role in apoptosis. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 462(2), 176-188.
Broxton, C. N., & Culotta, V. C. (2016). SOD enzymes and microbial pathogens: surviving the oxidative storm of infection. PLoS pathogens, 12(1), e1005295.
Brust, M., Fink, J., Bethell, D., Schiffrin, D. J., & Kiely, C. (1995). Synthesis and reactions of functionalised gold nanoparticles. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, (16), 1655-1656.
Burgess, J. E., Quarmby, J., & Stephenson, T. (1999). Role of micronutrients in activated sludge-based biotreatment of industrial effluents. Biotechnology advances, 17(1), 49-70.
Caruntu D, Remond Y, Chou NH, Jun M-J, Caruntu G, He J, Goloverda G, O'Connor C, Kolesnichenko V (2002). Reactivity of 3d transition metal cations in diethylene glycol solutions. Synthesis of transition metal ferrites with the structure of discrete nanoparticles complexed with long-chain carboxylate anions. Inorganic chemistry, 41(23), 6137-6146.
Chaithawiwat, K., Vangnai, A., McEvoy, J. M., Pruess, B., Krajangpan, S., & Khan, E. (2016). Role of oxidative stress in inactivation of Escherichia coli BW25113 by nanoscale zero-valent iron. Science of the Total Environment, 565, 857-862.
Cioffi, N., Torsi, L., Ditaranto, N., Tantillo, G., Ghibelli, L., Sabbatini, L., Bleve-Zacheo, T., D’Alessio, M., Zambonin, P.G., Traversa, E. (2005). Copper nanoparticle/polymer composites with antifungal and bacteriostatic properties. Chemistry of Materials, 17(21), 5255-5262.
Chang, M. L., Chen, J. C., Yeh, C. T., Chang, M. Y., Liang, C. K., Chiu, C. T., Lin D.Y., Liaw, Y. F. (2008). Gene gun bombardment with DNA-coated gold particles is a potential alternative to hydrodynamics-based transfection for delivering genes into superficial hepatocytes. Human gene therapy, 19(4), 391-395.
Colman, B. P., Arnaout, C. L., Anciaux, S., Gunsch, C. K., Hochella Jr, M. F., Kim, B., Lowry, G.V., McGill, B.M., Reinsch, B.C., Richardson, C.J., Unrine, J. M., Wright, J.P., Yin, L., Bernhardt, E.S. (2013). Low concentrations of silver nanoparticles in biosolids cause adverse ecosystem responses under realistic field scenario. PLoS One, 8(2), e57189.
Dubbs, J. M., & Mongkolsuk, S. (2016). Peroxide‐Sensing Transcriptional Regulators in Bacteria. Stress and Environmental Regulation of Gene Expression and Adaptation in Bacteria, 587-602.
Eid, R., Arab, N.T.T., Greenwood, M.T. (2017). Iron mediated toxicity and programmed cell death: A review and a re-examination of existing paradigms. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research, 1864(2), 399-430.
Fagali, N. S., Grillo, C. A., Puntarulo, S., & Lorenzo, M. A. F. (2015). Biodegradation of metallic biomaterials: its relation with the generation of reactive oxygen species. REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES, LIPID PEROXIDATION AND PROTEIN OXIDATION, 127.
Farr, S. B., Kogoma, T. (1991). Oxidative Stress Responses in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Microbiological Reviews, 55(4), 561-585.
Halliwell, B. (1991). Reactive oxygen species in living systems: Source, biochemistry, and role in human disease. The American Journal of Medicine, 91(3), S14-S22.
Halliwell, B. (2007). Biochemistry of oxidative stress. Biochem Soc Trans, 35(5), 1147-1150.
Halliwell, B., & Gutteridge, J. M. (2015). Free radicals in biology and medicine. Oxford University Press, USA.
Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, N. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press.
Huang, Q., Cao, M.H., Ai, Z.H., Zhang, L.Z. (2015). Reactive oxygen species dependent degradation pathway of 4-chlorophenol with Fe@Fe2O3 core-shell nanowires. Appl Catal B-Environ, 162, 319-326.
Hwang, E. T., Lee, J. H., Chae, Y. J., Kim, Y. S., Kim, B. C., Sang, B. I., & Gu, M. B. (2008). Analysis of the toxic mode of action of silver nanoparticles using stress‐specific bioluminescent bacteria. Small, 4(6), 746-750.
Ivask, A., ElBadawy, A., Kaweeteerawat, C., Boren, D., Fischer, H., Ji, Z., Chang, C.H., Liu, R., Tolaymat, T., Telesca, D., Zink, J. I., Cohen, Y., Holden, P.A., Godwin, H.A., (2013). Toxicity mechanisms in Escherichia coli vary for silver nanoparticles and differ from ionic silver. Acs Nano, 8(1), 374-386.
Kamariah, N., Nartey, W., Eisenhaber, B., Eisenhaber, F., & Grüber, G. (2016). Low resolution solution structure of an enzymatic active AhpC10: AhpF2 ensemble of the Escherichia coli Alkyl hydroperoxide Reductase. Journal of structural biology, 193(1), 13-22.
Kaplan, J. H., & Lutsenko, S. (2009). Copper transport in mammalian cells: special care for a metal with special needs. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 284(38), 25461-25465.
Kehrer, J.P. (2000). The Haber-Weiss reaction and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicology, 149, 43-50.
Kim, J.S., Kuk, E., Yu, K.N., Kim, J.H., Park, S.J., Lee, H.J., Kim, S.H., Park, Y.K., Park, Y.H., Hwang, C.Y., Kim, Y.K., Lee, Y.S., Jeong, D.H., Cho, M.H., (2007). Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, 3, 95-101.
Letelier, M. E., Sánchez-Jofré, S., Peredo-Silva, L., Cortés-Troncoso, J., & Aracena-Parks, P. (2010). Mechanisms underlying iron and copper ions toxicity in biological systems: Pro-oxidant activity and protein-binding effects. Chemico-biological interactions, 188(1), 220-227.
Li, F., Lei, C., Shen, Q., Li, L., Wang, M., Guo, M., Huang, Y., Nie, Z., Yao, S. (2013). Analysis of copper nanoparticles toxicity based on a stress-responsive bacterial biosensor array. Nanoscale, 5(2), 653-662.
Liu, L., Wu, D., Zhao, B., Han, X., Wu, J., Hou, H., & Fan, Y. (2015). Copper (II) coordination polymers: tunable structures and a different activation effect of hydrogen peroxide for the degradation of methyl orange under visible light irradiation. Dalton Transactions, 44(3), 1406-1411.
Magner, L.N. (1992). In: Hippocrates and the Hippocratic Tradition. A History of Medicine. Duffy J, editor. Marcel Dekker, Inc; NYC: 1992. p. 393.
Masoud, R., Bizouarn, T., Trepout, S., Wien, F., Baciou, L., Marco, S., & Levin, C. H. (2015). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles increase superoxide anion production by acting on NADPH oxidase. PloS one, 10(12), e0144829.
Mignolet-Spruyt, L., Xu, E., Idänheimo, N., Hoeberichts, F. A., Mühlenbock, P., Brosché, M. & Kangasjärvi, J. (2016). Spreading the news: subcellular and organellar reactive oxygen species production and signalling. Journal of Experimental Botany, 67(13), 3831-3844.
Morones-Ramirez, J. R., Winkler, J. A., Spina, C. S., & Collins, J. J. (2013). Silver enhances antibiotic activity against gram-negative bacteria. Science translational medicine, 5(190), 190ra81-190ra81.
Ochoa-Herrera, V., León, G., Banihani, Q., Field, J. A., Sierra-Alvarez, R. (2011). Toxicity of copper (II) ions to microorganisms in biological wastewater treatment systems. Science of the total environment, 412, 380-385.
Seo, S. W., Kim, D., Szubin, R., & Palsson, B. O. (2015). Genome-wide reconstruction of OxyR and SoxRS transcriptional regulatory networks under oxidative stress in Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655. Cell Reports, 12(8), 1289-1299.
Shareena Dasari, TP, Zhang, Y, Yu, H (2015). Antibacterial Activity and Cytotoxicity of Gold (I) and (III) Ions and Gold Nanoparticles. Biochem Pharmacol (Los Angel) 4(6), 199.
Wang, X., Gu, Y., Johnson, D., Chen, C., Huang, Y. (2017). The toxicity and DNA-damage mechanism of α-Fe2O3 nanoparticles. Medicinal chemistry Research, 26(2), 384-389.
Winterbourn, C.C. (1995). Toxicity of iron and hydrogen peroxide: the Fenton reaction. Toxicol. Lett., 82-83, 969-974.
Witkiewicz, P. L., & Shaw, C. F. (1981). Oxidative cleavage of peptide and protein disulphide bonds by gold (III): a mechanism for gold toxicity. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, (21), 1111-1114.
Yaeger C.C. (1991). Copper and zinc preservatives. In S.S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. 4th edn, Lea & Fiebiger Press, Philadelphia, USA, 358-361.
Yun, J., Lee, D.G. (2017). Silver Nanoparticles: A Novel Antimicrobial Agent. Antimicrobial Nanoarchitectonics, 139-166.
Zhang, C. (2014). Essential functions of iron-requiring proteins in DNA replication, repair and cell cycle control. Protein Cell, 5, 750-760.
Zhang, Y., Newton, B., Lewis, E., Fu, P. P., Kafoury, R., Ray, P. C., & Yu, H. (2015). Cytotoxicity of organic surface coating agents used for nanoparticles synthesis and stability. Toxicology in Vitro, 29(4), 762-768.
Zhang, H., Jiang, X., Cao, G., Zhang, X., Croley, T. R., Wu, X., & Yin, J. J. (2018). Effects of noble metal nanoparticles on the hydroxyl radical scavenging ability of dietary antioxidants. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 36(2), 84-97.
Zhao, G, Stevens, SE Jr. (1998). Multiple parameters for the comprehensive evaluation of the susceptibility of Escherichia coli to the silver ion. BioMetals 11(1), 27-32.