Dr. Robert Wick, PhD, UMASS Amherst

1. What are some of the common bacteria involved in contamination of field crops? What are some of the common sources of these pathogens?
Rob said that bacteria such as E coli. and salmonella are harmful to humans, but not plants. Bacteria that are harmful to plants tend to form bacteria diseases such as black rot, while human pathogenic bacteria such as E. coli have no effect. These human pathogenic bacteria end up on plants from a variety of different sources. Some of these bacteria sources include animal manure, feces from wild animals, and contaminated irrigation or wash water. When we explained our use of antifreeze proteins for our project, Rob suspects that they likely change lipid membrane composition. These membrane composition changes likely disrupt bacteria membranes, resulting in an antimicrobial effect. Rob mentioned that he would be careful with the level of expression of the antifreeze proteins. Although plants are very efficient when controlling protein expression and energy consumption, a constituently expressed protein could have a deleterious effect on a plant. Rob was also interested to know if some of the plants we are working with have similar DNA sequences to the antifreeze proteins. If so, this might help us make our system more controlled with regard to expression. Additionally, Rob was curious how antifreeze proteins are typically induced (daylight, temperature drop, etc.).
2. Do you see bacterial contamination of field crops as a prominent issue in agriculture?
Rob said that bacterial contamination issues vary more from crop to crop rather than farm to farm. For bacterial diseases of plants, issues tend to be seedborne, with only 1 in 10000 contaminated seeds being enough to infect an entire field of crops. All seeds are contaminated from the host plant. Because of this, if we are able to keep the host plant from getting contaminated, you can protect the seeds as well.
3. Which types of farms are most usually affected (ie. small farms, large farms, organic farms, non-organic farms), or does it depend on the farm and situation (ie. are there any patterns)?
Rob said that there are two common ways that plants can get bacterial diseases: buying seeds that are already contaminated or growing a crop in a site that had a bacterial disease the previous season. Many contamination issues are governed by weather patterns, with rainy conditions resulting in more bacteria than dry conditions. Water is a breeding ground for bacteria and wind can carry bacteria across a field. When asked which types of farms are most at risk from contamination, Rob reinforced that contamination is a plant-specific problem and is highly-dependent on weather. Rob mentioned that rotating crops every season helps prevent the spread of contamination. Most bacterial diseases are host-specific therefore rotating with unrelated crops is an important practice. For example, bacterial black rot of the cabbage family occurs throughout the cabbage family but does not affect other crops.
4. What is being done to control bacterial contamination of field crops? What are some of the proposed solutions? Is there any progress with these solutions?
Rob said that there are very sophisticated tests for human pathogens, while tests for plant pathogens are less commonly used and not as accurate. When buying a batch of seeds, it is quite difficult to detect bad seeds because bacteria can be present in such a small amount. You cannot assume that a batch of seeds is completely disease-free. In addition to bacteria spreading during a rainstorm, farmers can spread contamination by hand when picking produce out in a field. Regarding more conventional ways to prevent contamination, antibiotics can be used but only in a few cases. Copper can be used to kill bacteria, but it is often ineffective, and is washed off by rain rather quickly. There are not very good means for protecting plants and farmers try their best to limit the spread of contamination by not picking directly after a rainstorm.
5. What are some the of the biggest challenges facing our proposed solution? Would it be viable economically and pass all regulations? Would farmers mostly approve of or disapprove of our solution, or would they be indifferent? What is your personal opinion on our project?
Rob said that he and other farmers are behind the idea. Some of our project ideas are troubling to him, however. He is concerned that expressing antifreeze proteins all of the time could be a large energy disruption to the plants and could be harmful. Then again, he says it might not hurt them. He recommends looking into how these proteins are induced and how they affect plants.

Dr. Patricia Stapleton, PhD, WPI

1. You mention that the importance for US regulation of GM crops is whether the “new” crop is “substantially equivalent” to the existing crop. Can you elaborate on this distinction? For example which are considered transgenic, genetically modified, and natural, and which are not:
• In the case of taking a gene from a tick (ie. or any other insect or mammal) and inserting it into a crop
• In the case of taking a gene from another plant and inserting it into a crop
• In the case of spraying a protein derived from an insect, mammal, or another plant on a crop
• Does the criteria vary from crop to crop and from situation from situation?
Prof. Stapleton said that regulations vary from country to country, and sometimes from crop to crop. United States regulators look at the item to be modified and the modifier. If both the modified item and the modifier are well-known, any new crop is considered “substantially equivalent”. For example, carrots and tomatoes are both regulated and well-known, so a transgenic plant comprised of both carrots and tomatoes is allowed. Prof. Stapleton said a transgenic, or genetically-modified organism, is created from any procedure involving the placement of genes from one species into another species. Breeding is not considered genetic engineering, only laboratory procedures. Any plant that is transgenic or genetically-modified is not considered organic. Surprisingly, there is a list of specific pesticides and herbicides that can be used on organic plants, but it is highly-regulated.
2. What are some the of the biggest challenges facing our proposed solution? Would it be economically viable and pass all regulations? What are some of the regulations we would have to worry about?
We spoke about two methods to employ antifreeze proteins: using an antifreeze protein spray and genetic modification. Trying to pass a spray would be more difficult because it is considered an application and falls under a different set of regulation. There would be lots of testing (ie. soil tests for environmental impact). We would have to work closely with the EPA and FDA with this type of solution because the risks and environmental impact are higher. We would likely have more success with a transgenic plant due to less regulation. The government has been working with transgenic plants for a long time and there a more likely to be lenient. If we do consider trying to implement either solution, Prof. Stapleton recommended that we work with a large agricultural company because they have the framework, experience, and equipment available to speed-up the approval process (and have done similar things before).
3. What is the difference between cisgenic vs. transgenic?
Prof. Stapleton said that regulations vary from country to country, and sometimes from crop to crop. United States reguCisgenic plants have been created for thousands of years through selective breeding. Cisgenic refers to the breeding of two of the same species of plants, and is not referred to as genetic modification by regulatory bodies. Transgenic refers to laboratory genetic modification between species of plants.
4. What is the overall view of farmers and consumers on GMOs and transgenic plants? Are they mostly supportive, disapproving, or indifferent? Are there misconceptions? Does it matter on the population?
Farmers may be opposed to a spray solution because it could be toxic to crops. A transgenic solution could be more likely to be supported by farmers, especially using the carrot antifreeze protein (as opposed to the tick). Regarding consumers, they often only change their behavior when something has gone catastrophically wrong. In general, consumers don't seek out in-depth information about where their food comes from or what they are eating until a negative event draws their attention to it. People who have had food poisoning in the past might be more likely to try our solution and weigh the options.
5. What are the biggest challenges facing the agricultural industry with regard to bacterial contamination and foodborne illness? What are some of the proposed solutions? Is there any progress with these solutions?
There are many challenges facing farmers with regard to foodborne illness. Some common sources of contamination include exposure to water runoff, wild animals, and fertilizer, manure, applications, and handling by farmers. Once contamination is found however, it is difficult to determine where in the supply chain it occured (field, point of harvest, processing, packaging, transport, supermarket, or home or restaurant). Although it is difficult to prevent contamination, it is easier to prevent exposure. Exposure can be prevented by having fewer people involved and limiting the transportation time of produce. Prof. Stapleton said that contamination will most often occur in the field.
6. You mention that about 80% of all GM crops are genetically modified to make them resistant to herbicides, and are likely transgenic from bacteria. What do you mean by this? Do you mean that bacteria are used to make these plants transgenic? Is this a common practice?
Professor Stapleton said she was referring to using genes from bacteria in transgenic plant. Bacterial genes have been used for a long time and are very highly-regulated.

Glenn Stillman, Stillman's Farm, Worcester, MA

Conscientiously GrownTM
On Wednesday, July 18th we visited Stillman’s Farm located in New Braintree, Massachusetts. We met with farm owner Glenn Stillman for approximately an hour and a half. Glenn bought the New Braintree farm back in 1990, and later adopted a slogan for the farm to reflect his responsible growing and environmental practices. Glenn adopted the Conscientiously GrownTM slogan because he was dissatisfied with traditional “conventional” and “organic” produce labels. Conscientiously GrownTM includes many different practices. Stillman’s farm does not offer GM (genetically modified) crops for marketing reasons and because their consumer base is not interested in GM crops. Glenn has nothing against GM crops, but does not believe that the benefits of growing GM crops outweigh the negative publicity they can cause. Regarding sprays, Stillman’s farm only uses select herbicides and synthetics on their produce. Not all crops require the use of chemical sprays, however. Glenn told us that he does not list his crops as organic, but mentioned that organic crops have a list of pre-approved chemicals, many of which he does not use on the farm. Glenn said that he is able to achieve 6-10% organic matter in his soil, which is high. The final component of the farm’s Conscientiously Grown practices includes a dedication to wildlife and the environment by refraining from using organic and traditional sprays that harm wildlife and the environment.

Sources of Contamination and Washing
Glenn mentioned that the two main sources of bacterial contamination on Stillman’s farm are manure and wash water. Glenn stopped using manure after he read a story about contaminated spinach. A few years ago, a group of people got sick from bacteria in manure that was taken up by spinach roots. This type of situation is particularly bad because bacteria that is present inside the spinach cannot be washed off or easily detected. As a result of this, Glenn opts to not use manure on his farm. For washing produce, Glenn uses water that is treated with bleach. By law, Stillman’s farm is required to have their wash water tested once a year, which has never tested positive for bacteria. Regarding the washing process, produce is picked daily, rinsed and dipped once in water, and is sold. Glenn said that washing not only on the farm, but at home, is extremely important to prevent illness. Glenn told us that bacterial formation is highly dependent on location and transport. For example, crops sold by Stillman’s farm go directly to the consumer and there is less time for the bacteria to grow. Meanwhile, produce that is shipped by large distributors across many states has more time to develop bacteria. While it is unlikely that a small amount of bacteria will make a healthy individual sick, individuals with compromised immune systems, children, and the elderly are at a much higher risk of illness. The longer the bacteria is able the grow, the higher the chance somebody might get sick. Glenn mentioned that produce can sit for up to ten days before it is sold!

Farming Practices for Lettuce
Glenn first germinates a lettuce seed in a greenhouse under controlled precipitation and heat. The seed is germinated in controlled conditions to help it survive during bad weather and control its growth. The seeds are germinated in synthetic soil with a high organic composition because traditional field soil would harden up. After germination, the lettuce is transplanted and transferred outside where it hardens up in plastic-lined raised rows before it is picked and sold.

Opinion on Our Proposed Solution
Glenn said he would wholeheartedly support our proposed solution. He said that many farmers would likely be in support as well. Glenn said that farmers would appreciate the peace of mind our solution would provide, knowing that their crops would not be contaminated and make anybody sick. Being a farmer is stressful, because the success of the farm is totally dependent on the success of the harvest. If a harvest is poor or somebody gets sick, it could spell disaster for a farm for years to come. Our solution not only would help prevent illness, but protect farmers’ livelihood.

Human Practices

At iGEM we believe societal considerations should be upfront and integrated throughout the design and execution of synthetic biology projects. “Human Practices” refers to iGEM teams’ efforts to actively consider how the world affects their work and the work affects the world. Through your Human Practices activities, your team should demonstrate how you have thought carefully and creatively about whether your project is responsible and good for the world. We invite you to explore issues relating (but not limited) to the ethics, safety, security, and sustainability of your project, and to show how this exploration feeds back into your project purpose, design and execution.

For more information, please see the Human Practices Hub. There you will find:

• an introduction to Human Practices at iGEM
• tips on how to succeed including explanations of judging criteria and advice about how to conduct and document your Human Practices work
• descriptions of exemplary work to inspire you
• links to helpful resources
• And more!

On this page, your team should document all of your Human Practices work and activities. You should write about the Human Practices topics you considered in your project, document any activities you conducted to explore these topics (such as engaging with experts and stakeholders), describe why you took a particular approach (including referencing any work you built upon), and explain if and how you integrated takeaways from your Human Practices work back into your project purpose, design and/or execution.

If your team has gone above and beyond in work related to safety, then you should document this work on your Safety wiki page and provide a description and link on this page. If your team has developed education and public engagement efforts that go beyond a focus on your particular project, and for which would like to nominate your team for the Best Education and Public Engagement Special Prize, you should document this work on your Education and Education wiki page and provide a description and link here.

Silver Medal Criterion #3

Convince the judges you have thought carefully and creatively about whether your work is responsible and good for the world. Document how you have investigated these issues and engaged with your relevant communities, why you chose this approach, and what you have learned. Please note that surveys will not fulfill this criteria unless you follow scientifically valid methods.

Gold Medal Criterion #1

Expand on your silver medal activity by demonstrating how you have integrated the investigated issues into the purpose, design and/or execution of your project. Document how your project has changed based upon your human practices work.

Best Integrated Human Practices Special Prize

To compete for the Best Integrated Human Practices prize, please describe your work on this page and also fill out the description on the judging form.

How does your project affect society and how does society influence the direction of your project? How might ethical considerations and stakeholder input guide your project purpose and design and the experiments you conduct in the lab? How does this feedback enter into the process of your work all through the iGEM competition? Document a thoughtful and creative approach to exploring these questions and how your project evolved in the process to compete for this award!

You must also delete the message box on the top of this page to be eligible for this prize.